Bashir Jam
Volume 9, Issue 16 , November 2017, Pages 1-14
Abstract
Extended Abstract
1- Introduction
The word “râ”is the only postposition in Persian .Its formal pronunciationis never used in the spoken style. The postposition/r/ is pronounced [ro] after words ending with vowels and [o] when it occurs after words ending with consonants. That is because a preceding ...
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Extended Abstract
1- Introduction
The word “râ”is the only postposition in Persian .Its formal pronunciationis never used in the spoken style. The postposition/r/ is pronounced [ro] after words ending with vowels and [o] when it occurs after words ending with consonants. That is because a preceding consonant triggers /r/ deletion. These phonological environments indicate that variation is arguably not random.
2- Methodology
This research aimed at analyzing various environments and phonological processes which change the pronunciation of /r/. In so doing, it came up with the inclusive rankings of the constraints to explain these different pronunciations within the optimality theory (OT) (Prince & Smolensky, 1993/2004).
Optimality theory is one of the most significant developments in generative grammar. The first detailed exposition of the theory appears in Prince and Smolensky's (1993) book, entitled ‘Optimality Theory: Constraint Interaction in Generative Grammar’. Its goal is to explain the phonology of languages only by using a set of universal constraints. No phonological rule is being applied in its analyses because they generally explained the language-specific phenomena. In contrast, constraints in OT are not merely solutions to language-specific problems; they are claims about Universal Grammar (UG) seeking to explain phonological phenomena universally. Furthermore, there is no interaction between rules and constraints, i.e., OT is not a mixed theory. The principles of SPE phonology (Chomsky & Halle, 1968) namely rules and serial derivations between underlying representation (UR) and phonetic representation (PR) have been abandoned by OT; however, UR and PR which are renamed as input and output respectively, are being assumed in the classical sense.
This research deals with optionality also known as ‘free variation’ in the pronunciation of “râ”. Optionality is a case in which a single input is mapped onto two grammatical outputs, although their distribution is not under grammatical control. The fact that variation is ‘free’ does not imply that it is totally unpredictable, but only that no grammatical principles govern the distribution of variants. Nevertheless, a wide range of extra grammatical factors may affect the choice of one variant over the other, including sociolinguistic variables (such as gender, age, and class), and performance variables (such as speech style and tempo). Extra grammatical variables affect the choice of occurrence of one output over another.
In this research, free ranking is applied to explain optionality in the pronunciation of “râ”. According to Kager (1999) as a purely theoretical option to deal with optionality , free ranking was observed by Prince and Smolensky (1993), and has since been argued to be the OT counterpart of optional rule application. When two constraintsC1 and C2 are freely ranked, the evaluation procedure branches at that point. In one branch, C1 is ranked above C2, while in the other branch the ranking is reversed. Evaluation of the candidate set is split into two subhierarchies, each of which selects an optimal output. Free ranking preserves strict domination, which holds within each subhierarchy.
The ultimate goal of this research is to come up with inclusive rankings of the constraints which explain different pronunciations of /r/ in various phonological environments. The results section of this research includes several facts about the phonological processes involved in changing the pronunciation of /r/.
3- Discussion
The choice between /r/’s two allomorphs [ro] and [o] depends on the phonetic properties of the preceding word. If the preceding word ends with vowels [e], [a], and [], then /r/ obligatorily changes to [ro]. In this raising process the underlying low vowel // changes to [o]. However, if the preceding word ends with a consonant, then /r/ obligatorily changes to [o] due to vowel raising and /r/ deletion. The markedness constraints *Apopo and *C]rpopo trigger these two pronunciations respectively. Moreover, /r/ is optionally pronounced [o] after words ending with vowels [i], [u], and [o]. This is due to /r/ deletion which triggers glide insertion to resolve hiatus at an intermediate level between the underlying representation and the phonetic representation.
4- Conclusion
The significance of this research is that it is the first study which introduces different pronunciations of the Persian sole postposition /r/ in various phonological environments .It also discusses several facts about the phonological processes involved in changing the pronunciation of /r/.A significant feature of this paper is that it starts with a constraint ranking and ends with coming up with a single inclusive ranking of constraints that is capable of explaining all the different pronunciations of the postposition /r/. The inclusive ranking is in fact a combination of different constraint rankings
Abolfazl Shahali; Azam Estaji; Ali Alizadeh
Volume 9, Issue 16 , November 2017, Pages 15-43
Abstract
Extended Abstract
1- Introduction
Discourse analysis is primarily concerned with not only investigating the formal features of discourse like syntax and phonology, but also considering the social functions of the discourse produced by language users in various social and cultural contexts (Van Dijk, ...
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Extended Abstract
1- Introduction
Discourse analysis is primarily concerned with not only investigating the formal features of discourse like syntax and phonology, but also considering the social functions of the discourse produced by language users in various social and cultural contexts (Van Dijk, 1997). A long history of literature in the field has examined various discourses including educational, scientific, literary, and political. However, comparative analysis of the literature reveals three ignored points: first, the study of the historical characteristics; second, the study of the discourse of those political leaders who have gained power based on an approach other than democracy; and third, the importance of analyzing the authorities’ discourse in addressing people. Political leaders have always been concerned with gaining legitimacy since all governments are set to build their legitimacy on an intellectual principle (Fukuyama, 2015). Therefore, the current study employs Halliday and Matthiessen’s (2014) systemic functional grammar and aims to represent the concepts of power (authority), legitimacy, and social inequalities introduced by Max Weber (1968) in Rezashah’s discourse in addressing the people.
2- Methodology
This research is founded on Halliday and Matthiessen’s (2014) systemic functional grammar. Since few speeches and messages have been left from Rezashah (Fardust, 1990), all Rezashah’s speeches and messages (7 cases) delivered to people were collected using the library method and then analyzed based on the proposed framework. Consequently, the concepts of power, legitimacy, and social inequalities were represented in Rezasha’s discourse.
3- Discussion
The results of the study indicate that 56 and 51 clauses of Rezashah’s discourse are structured by relational and material processes, respectively. As such, the relational process is used to describe features and compare the situation of the Iranian society in different issues before and after Pahlavi dynasty. The material process also aids audience experience various events like “providing people with happiness and welfare”, “prescribing misery”, “avoiding traitors”, etc. Moreover, employing terms like “[people] have to know….”, “[people] have to consider” and “[people] have to understand” all indicate Rezashah’s attempt to let his audience be aware of the world in his mind. Examining the verbal process also reveals that Rezashah has used verbs like “announcing”, “commanding” and “notifying” to express his wishes, desires and demands. In addition, the pronoun “I” with 35 cases, either overt or covert, is the most frequent subject of Rezashah’s discourse, followed by the pronoun “you” and other noun phrases referring to his audience. It is interesting to note that “Ghoshoon”-army force- has a particular status in Rezashah’s discourse as a subject, which seems to have its root in his military concerns. Mozar-e-Eltezami is the most frequent tense in his discourse. The analyses reveal that negative polarity is used to remind the women’s problems and the disadvantaged status of the society in the past dynasty. Rezashah has never used the elements of suspicion in his discourse, yet has used Mozar-e-Eltezami and various terms like “never”, “without exception”, “undoubtedly”, “always”, “must”, “mustn’t” and “it is necessary….” to show a high degree of certainty and the importance of his messages and speeches. Conjunction together with conjunctive adjunct, which improves the coherence of texts, constitutes 28.88% of the thematic structure of his discourse. Passivization is another important factor that has enhanced the coherence of Rezashah’s discourse. Conjunction with 18.27% (85 cases) has the major role in the cohesion of his discourse. Collocations (68 cases), ellipsis (13.97%), repetition (60 cases), and reference (9.46%) are the other cohesive devices that increase the cohesion of Rezashah’s discourse.
4- Conclusion
Based on the findings of the study, Rezashah always talks about “must” and “mustn’t” and tries to remind his demands and desires to “you”-his audience. He portrays himself as the nation’s savior from misery they had experienced in the past and threatens them not to support the traitors, otherwise they are doomed to death. In fact, Rezashah’s ideology which has been depicted in the form of three major processes and 62 cases of Mozar-e-Eltezami has transformed his discourse into a saber-rattling field against “you”. Accordingly, Rezashah’s discourse involves idiosyncratic characteristics such as “punishment procedure”, “obligation”, “violence”, “with us or against us”, “impatience”, and “exclusiveness”. Regarding the concept of legitimacy, since Rezashah’s power was not inherited, he himself was not a charismatic leader and he ascended to throne without a democratic election, his government was not consistent with any types of legitimated government described by Weber (1968). In fact, according to Van Dijk’s (2001) idea, his leadership enjoys a negative legitimacy. Finally, the most salient instances of social inequalities in his discourse are concluded as follows:
• Kashf-e-Hijab (unveiling) in a Shia’a society like Iran
• Compelling people to accept his son as his successor without any democratic election
• Forcing people to follow and support his dynasty and threatening the aggressors and traitors
Narjes Sabouri
Volume 9, Issue 16 , November 2017, Pages 45-59
Abstract
Extended Abstract
1- Introduction
Etymology is in brief the study of word’s origin or history. Thus, to achieve the correct root of a word, one should get back in time to be able to provide evident information about the word and confidently restore the word-formation process. Gilaki dialect is ...
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Extended Abstract
1- Introduction
Etymology is in brief the study of word’s origin or history. Thus, to achieve the correct root of a word, one should get back in time to be able to provide evident information about the word and confidently restore the word-formation process. Gilaki dialect is a modern Iranian one belongs to the northwestern branch of Iranian languages and dialects spoken toward the edge of Caspian Sea and the sideline of southwest coast of the Sea. Like other Iranian dialects, Gilaki is of several types such that sometimes a different variation is used in the neighboring parts. In addition, Gilaki, in terms of linguistics is significantly different from standard Persian in different structural, phonological, and lexica levels.
2- Methodology
This research is a diachronic one which studies the etymology of twenty Gilaki words on the basis of the reliable references of historical linguistics as well as etmylogical ones. Based on researcher’s intuition, the data were collected from the plains of east Guilan and the mountainous part of Deylaman and some others were gathered in the field. In any entry, the ancient Iranian and Indo-European roots along with the phonological/ structural features of the word are given. Then, the cognates of other Iranian languages and dialects are presented. The field method was used to get the data from Tati, Talishi, Mazandarani, and Hawrami. The phonemic transcription of the data was done in terms of the methods and symbols prevalent in the works in Iranian languages.
3- Discussion
-ča:mən »urine«
This is the Gilaki noun derived from ancint Iranian *č āman- < *čįa- »to throw, to get rid of«.
-dəvərsə »being replaced«
The short participle form dəvərəstə; from derivative prefix də-, past stem vərəst-. present stem derived from ancient Iranian *ṷar- »to turn, to rotate« > *uara- > vər-
-dajanēn »to pain«
It is the Gilaki causative verb from causative stem dajan-, present stem daj- derived from ancient Iranian *daj- »to burn, to fire« > *daja- > daj-.
- dəxrāvəstən »crumble«
It is the Gilaki verb from derivative prefix də-, past stem xrāvəst- derived from *xrau- »to tear, to rip, to break« >*xrāua- > xrāv-.
- fušon »wrinkle«
It is the Gilaki noun from derivative prefix fu- »bottom« and šon < *šāna- < *šan- »to shake, to tremble. «
- havatən »to take off«
It is the Gilaki prefixed verb, from derivative prefix ha-, past stem vat- derived from *uaj- »pull out« > *vaxta- > vat-.
-kərjə »tap, flick«
It is the Gilaki noun derived from ancient Iranian *karčaka- < karč- »to knock«.
-kəšə »chain, thick rope«
It is the Gilaki noun derived from ancient Iranian *kašaka- < *kaš- »to imprison, to jail«.
- mətə »walked«
It is the Gilaki participle based on ancient participle derived from *maig- »to move« > *mixta- > məxt- > mət.
- nəštə »old«
It is the Gilaki participle based on ancient participle derived from *nas- »to disappear, to vanish« > *nasta- > našt-.
- nəvəstə »moved«
It is the Gilaki participle based on past stem of nəvəst- formed on present stem nəv-: *naṷ- »to move« > *naṷa- > nəv-.
-rut »muddy & contaminated water«
It is the relic of ancient Iranian participle *ruta- < *ru- »to besmirch, to befoul«.
-sərtə »covered & hidden«
It is the Gilaki adjective derived from the ancient Iranian *sartaka- < *sar- »to hide, to conceal. «
-tələ »gap«
It is the Gilaki noun derived from the ancient Iranian *tardaka- < *tard- »to break, to split, to cleave. «
-tān »range, depth«
It is the Gilaki noun derived from the ancient Iranian *tāna- < *tan- »to stretch, to expand«.
-tārəstən »to clean«
It is the Gilaki verb from past stem tārəst derived from *tar- »to rub, to clean« > *tāra- > tār-.
-valət »torn«
It is the relic of ancient participle from derivative prefix va- and *rak- »to cut, to tear «
>*rakta- > lət-.
-vindərdə »standing«
It is the Gilaki participle from the ancient Iranian *ṷi-ni-dar- »to stand «> *ṷindarta- > vindərd-
xəfə »cough«
It is the Gilaki noun derived from *xafaka- < *xaf- »to cough.«
zāranēn »to irritate«
This is the causative verb from zāran- deived from *zar- »to hurt, to injure, to irritate «
>*zāra- > zār- » to hurt, to injure, to irritate «
4- Conclusion
Studying the etymology of Gilaki words not only reveals the association of this dialect with other Iranian dialects particularly Tati, and Talishi in three periods of Ancient, Middle, and Modern Iranian, it also reflects the developmental process of phonemes and lexical structures and indicates the lexical and semantic capacity of this dialect, as well as other Iranian languages, and the related dialects. Taking the opportunity to scrutinize Iranian languages and dialects in terms of historical linguistics and etymological researches. This is to find a way not only to preserve and keep these valuable treasures but also to use their lexical and semantic capacity for word-formation and further to enhance the richness of Persian language.
Elahe Taheri Ghaleno; Shahla Raghibdust
Volume 9, Issue 16 , November 2017, Pages 61-85
Abstract
Extended Abstract
1- Introduction
Storytelling is one of the effective ways to increase the learning level of a child, because it helps him to create meaning based on his observations and experiences. Using concept maps and story grammar is helpful for children in creating stories, as they can employ ...
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Extended Abstract
1- Introduction
Storytelling is one of the effective ways to increase the learning level of a child, because it helps him to create meaning based on his observations and experiences. Using concept maps and story grammar is helpful for children in creating stories, as they can employ the structure of concept maps as a pattern for organizing and representing stories. Concept maps are represented in a hierarchical fashion in which the most inclusive concepts and contents are represented at the top of the map, and the more specific contents and concepts are placed at the end of the hierarchy (Novak & Canas, 2006). It seems that the two features of concept maps, that is, the hierarchical structure represented in the map and the possibility to search and identify new cross connections, have an important role in forming a creative and critical thinking in children, since the ability to draw a concept map requires the activity of higher cognitive levels, namely the evaluation and combination of knowledge (ibid). A concept map is used as a graphical creation system for organizing knowledge and information (Chen, Looi, & Chen, 2009), thus, instead of dealing with the details which will reduce creativity, it can guide the story development at the meta-level (Liu, Chen, Shih, Huang, & Liu, 2011). Liu and colleagues (2011,) believe that story grammar consists of four main sections: a) setting, b) action, c) event, and d) sequence. Setting is the description of the place and time of the story and the relationship between characters. Action includes activities such as competition, adventure, and daily activities of characters. Events consist of all the incidents that occur during the story, such as difficulties and obstacles. Sequence includes the outcomes of the events, such as success, achievements, and rewards.
The main objective of this research was to evaluate and compare the performance of Persian-speaking children in two age groups of 7-8 and 8-9 years old in using story grammar through concept maps. The researchers aimed to use these maps and story grammars to help children in creating stories, and to compare their performance in using story grammars through concept maps in terms of the number of words and events and also the usage manner of the features of story grammar (setting, action, events and their sequences) in storytelling.
2- Methodology
The present descriptive and comparative study was conducted for two weeks on 14 Persian-speaking monolingual girls in two age groups of 7-8 (first grade) and 8-9 (second grade) years in Asemi elementary school, district 9 of Tehran. In the first week, the children became familiar with story grammar and concept maps, and in the second week, each child was required to create and tell a story about "the adventures of losing my little brother in the forest" for about 25 minutes. The children were asked to draw their concept maps on an A4 sheet. Their story tellings were recorded by MP4 while drawing.
3- Discussion
Data analysis revealed that the mean number of episodes produced by children in the age group of 7-8 and 8-9 years were 6.14 and 7.71, respectively. Also, the 7-8 years old subjects produced a mean number of 98.42 words, while the 8-9 years old ones produced a mean of 146.85. Thus, the Persian-speaking children in the two age groups showed different degrees of ability to use story grammar in terms of the number of words and events, but this difference was not statistically significant (the P value for the number of episode variable in the 7-8 years old group was 0.05
Batool Alinezhad; Rahman Veisi Hasar
Volume 9, Issue 16 , November 2017, Pages 87-108
Abstract
Extended Abstract
1-Introduction
The process of hypocoristic truncation refers to a process which includes the reduction of a proper name to a shortened form. In this process, the initial parts are mainly retained, and the final ones are truncated. These truncated names are mainly applied in intimate ...
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Extended Abstract
1-Introduction
The process of hypocoristic truncation refers to a process which includes the reduction of a proper name to a shortened form. In this process, the initial parts are mainly retained, and the final ones are truncated. These truncated names are mainly applied in intimate situations as a nickname or a term of endearment. From the optimality perspective, the hypocoristic formation is mainly based on the priority of markedness constraints over faithfulness constraints. In fact, the phonological identity of input forms and output ones (the constraint of faithfulness) is suppressed in favor of unmarked syllabic structures (markedness constraints). Although this phonological process has been under scrutiny in many languages, no research has been conducted in Kurdish language yet. Therefore, the present study aims at investigating some data in Kurdish language with reliance on the optimality theory in order to explain the phonological constraints responsible for making Kurdish hypocoristic names.
2- Methodology
The methodology of the present paper is based on the optimality theory (Prince & Smolensky, 1993). The fundamental concepts of this theory include markedness, faithfulness, constraint, and ranking. According to this theory, the linguistic structure is influenced by two fundamental competing forces: the markedness force acts in line with producing different types of unmarked structures; while, the faithfulness force functions in line with preserving lexical contrast (Kager, 1999; McCarty, 2008). In other words, faithfulness necessitates the congruency of output forms with the input ones, while markedness imposes a pressure to produce unmarked structures (Kager, 1999). Constraints have a particular ranking in each language which varies drastically from one language to another (McCarty, 2008). Violating each constraint is influenced by its particular ranking in the language (Kager, 1999). The higher the rank of a constraint is, the more its influence on phonetic environments is (Dekker, Vandekeeuwl, & Vande Wejer, 2000). Violating constraints with lower ranks along with observing and keeping constraints with high ranks result in optimal structures.
In the optimality phonology, the process of making hypocoristic names is also explained as the domination of markedness constraints over faithfulness ones (Hong, 2006). Markedness constraints exert a pressure to produce the optimal syllables in the hypocoristic names; nevertheless, Faithfulness constraints tend to make a congruency between the underlying input and the output of the hypocoristic form (Nelson, 1998). Due to the domination of markedness constraints, hypocoristic names prefer to delete a few consonants and vowels in favor of an optimal syllabic structure. Concerning this perspective, we try to clarify the dynamics of constraints related to hypocoristic forms in Kurdish language.
3- Discussion and Analysis
When hypocoristic process is applied to proper names, it deletes some clusters and syllables, and then it adds different endings to them according to the gender. As far as feminine names are considered, the first consonant, the second vowel, and the third consonant remain unchanged in the truncation process, but the rest elements are deleted. Finally, the vowel /e: /is added to the hypocoristic name which has now an optimal syllable structure of CV.CV. Regarding masculine names, the first consonant, the second vowel, and the third consonant are preserved in the truncation process, and the rest consonants and vowels are deleted. Finally, the suffix /-a/ is attached to the truncated forms:
1. amina•am [a] ra:bea•ra:b [a]
2. fathoła: făt[a] m(I)ka:il mIk[a]
The hypocoristic formation in Kurdish is highly dependent on the constraints related to the syllable structure. That is, these truncated names are characterized by optimal syllables. In the mentioned examples, the faithfulness constraints (PARSE, Fill) are violated because of the deletion of final consonants and vowels, and also due to attaching vowels /-a/, /-e/ to the end of names. However, these phonetic modifications are employed for the sake of forming an unmarked syllabic structure. As a way of illustration, the markedness constraints of onset, no-coda, no complex coda, and no complex nucleus are satisfied at the cost of violating the faithfulness constraints. Therefore, the ranking of constraints are as follows:
3. Onset, No-coda, *Complex coda, *Complex onset >> Parse, Fill
Additionally, the anchor constraint is always applied to the left side of the names. Regarding this constraint, the left side of the hypocoristic name should always be matched with the left side of the underlying name. Violating this constraint results in ungrammaticality. In addition, the last constraint, having priority over all the other constraints, is as follows:
4. The middle vowel must not be at the nucleus of the first syllable of the hypocoristic names: *mid vowel
The hierarchy of constraints related to the phonological structure of hypocoristic names can be illustrated as follows:
5. Onset, *coda,*mid-vowel, nuc,*complex coda, complex onset >> left-anchoring>>right-anchoring, parse, fill
4. Conclusion
By analyzing and investigating different cases of hypocoristic names in Kurdish from an optimality perspective, the following results were obtained: the hypocoristic names in this language include a highly optimal syllable structure. This optimal structure is made possible by the priority of markedness constraints over the faithfulness ones. The following ranking illustrates the hierarchy of constraints related to the hypocoristic names:
6. Onset, *coda,*mid-vowel, nuc,*complex coda, complex onset >> left-anchoring>>right-anchoring, pars, fill
.
Abolfazl Mazinani
Volume 9, Issue 16 , November 2017, Pages 109-132
Abstract
Extended Abstract
1- Introduction
Generally, the term ‘clitic’ refers to those bound linguistic elements that phonologically attach to the beginning/end of their adjacent words, while, at the same time, play a significant syntactic role in their respective clauses. In other words, as Zwicky (1994) ...
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Extended Abstract
1- Introduction
Generally, the term ‘clitic’ refers to those bound linguistic elements that phonologically attach to the beginning/end of their adjacent words, while, at the same time, play a significant syntactic role in their respective clauses. In other words, as Zwicky (1994) also puts it, they are affixes since they attach to other free words, and besides, they are words because they can function as an argument or the head of a (single-word) phrase; and this is why they have been placed in different categories, e.g. ‘pronominal clitics’ (See Halpern, 1995; Klavans, 1985; Zwicky, 1997; Zwicky & Pullum, 1983).
Spencer lists three reasons why pronominal clitics need to be linguistically studied: a) the existence of interactions between cliticization and argument structure, b) the importance of such studies for syntactic theorizations, and c) the change of most pronominal clitic systems to agreement systems in the course of history (1991, p. 180).
Taking another step in the direction of studying different aspects of Pronominal Clitics of Persian (See Bahrami & Rezayi, 2013; Mazinani, 2008; Mazinani, Kambuzia & Golfam, 2013; Mazinani & Sharifi, 2015; Mazinani, Alizadeh, & Sharifi (2016); Mofidi, 2007; Rasekh-Mahand, 2007, 2008, 2010, among others), the Clitic System in Mazinani Dialect (MD) of Persian - in which some remnants of Middle Persian (MP) can be found (See Mazinani, 2008, 2016) - was intended to be compared with those of MP, Classic New Persian (CNP), & Contemporary Standard Persian (CSP); consequently, following a descriptive-comparative approach, the research was carried out by answering the following questions:
1. Which clitic system does Mazinani Pronominal Clitics respond to?
2. What are the differences between Pronominal Clitics of MD and the abovementioned periods of Persian in terms of placement and the syntactic roles they can play?
3. What linguistic effects may practically or theoretically be considered to be the consequence of the possible answer to the 2nd question?
2- Methodology
To answer the first question, the researcher adopted the classification introduced by Halpern (1995) and its extension by Mazinani and Sharifi (2015):
2-1- Second Position Clitic System
a) Second Word Clitic System: a subdivision of the Second Position System in which the clitic encliticizes to the first phonological word of a sentence.
b) Second Daughter Clitic System: a subdivision of the Second Position System in which the clitic encliticizes to the first syntactic constituent of a sentence (Halpern, 1995, p. 15-16).
2-2- Verbal Clitic System:
It’s a system in which the clitic is placed immediately adjacent to the verb before or after it (See Halpern, 1995, p. 183-187). Mazinani and Sharifi (2015) have extended this system and divided it into two categories:
a) Preverbal Clitic System: a subdivision of Verbal System in which the clitic encliticizes to a possible host and appears immediately adjacent to the verb.
b) Post-Verbal Clitic System: a subdivision of Verbal System in which the clitic encliticizes to the last element of the verb (Mazinani & Sharifi, 2015).
3- Clitic System in the course of Persian history
3-1- MP
Like Old Persian (OP), MP also makes use of Second Word System. Nevertheless, some differences can be observed between the forms and the functions of their correspondent clitics. Unlike the OP, MP’s Clitics were assigned abstract case thanks to the loss of OP’s morphological endings. In addition, it was also added to their syntactic functions to play the role of the subject in MP’s Ergative Constructions (See examples in Mazinani & Sharifi, 2015).
3-2- CNP
In this period, and henceforward, morphological changes have not affected the clitics’ form. However, compared to MP, a significant change in the placements of clitics can be seen in this period. Besides, one can hardly find Ergative Constructions in CNP. Mazinani and Sharifi (2015) state that they have encountered many constructions that could serve a fine example for all the above mentioned clitic systems by the following specified constraints:
Second Word Clitic System: if Complementizer Phrase (CP) has an overt Complementizer such as ke (which) and agar (if), a clitic simply assigned genitive case may encliticize to it.
Second Daughter Clitic System: both direct object and indirect object clitics may encliticize to the last word of the first syntactic constituent of the clause.
Preverbal Clitic System: both direct object and indirect object clitics appear frequently in preverbal position and encliticize to the last word of a wide range of syntactic constituents.
Post-Verbal Clitic System: both indirect object and direct object clitics may encliticize to the last morpheme of the verb. (See examples in Mazinani & Sharifi, 2015).
3-3- CSP
The main system one encounters in CSP is Post-Verbal Clitic System. However, in this period, contrary to the CNP, one can hardly find an indirect object clitic in post-verbal position. Beside the main verb, there are lots of prepositions that assign case to CNP’s clitics. A genitive clitic necessarily encliticizes to its own modifier.
3-4. MD
Pronominal Clitics of Mazinani Dialect are placed immediately-adjacent to the verb as its internal arguments whether they are direct or indirect objects. They encliticize mostly to the preverbal permitted hosts, and if none present, they attach to the verb itself. The results of this research showed that the permitted hosts are usually one of the obligatory constituents subcategorized by the verbs.
Other hosts in the VP domain include Imperative/Negative/Present Perfective/Past Morphemes, Past Participles in Past Perfect Tense Constructions, nominal or adjectival parts of Complex Predications and Interrogative Pronouns questioning direct objects (see examples in Mazinani, 2008).
4- Comparison & Conclusion
In this research, the MD’s Clitic System was compared to those of MP, CNP, and CSP. This comparison is illustrated by five different versions of a sentence meaning ‘I took her/him from home to the market’ which is supposed to have been produced in different periods/dialects of Persian. The historical linguistic changes are also explained in their respective footnotes:
1. [az=om= iš xānag] [pad bāzār] bord.
2. [az xāna]=š [be bāzār] bord-om.
3. [az xāna] [be bāzār] =eš bord-om.
4. [az xāna] [be bāzār] bord=eš-om .
5. [az xune] [be bāzār] bord-am=eš.
Table 1: the CNP, MD, & CSP’s Clitic System Compared and contrasted
Sentence
No. A typical example
of Permitted
to be produced in Mostly
produced in
1 Second Word Clitic System MP MP
2 Second Daughter Clitic System MP / CNP CNP
3 Pre-verbal Clitic System CNP / MD MD
4 Mid-verbal Clitic System CNP?!! / MD MD
5 Post-verbal Clitic System CNP / MD / CSP CSP
After analyzing and comparing the data, the following results emerged: a) hypothetically, the Dialect’s Clitic System represents the mid-state of change in the same system from CNP to CSP in the course of Persian history; b) diachronically, this research confirmed that the process of ‘reanalysis’, suggested in the literature, has been the main factor of change in Persian’s Clitic System; c) the syntactic roles played by the Persian Pronominal Clitics has been reduced step by step as a result of another change from MP’s Abstract to CSP’s Structural Case-assigning. Therefore, according to the principle of functional transparency, it was approved that the grammaticalization of these pronouns has been at work coupled with the change in Persian's Clitic System; d) results of the comparison shown in the 3rd column of the above table reminds us of Hawkins’ (1983) ‘Dual Acquisition Hypothesis’; beside this, referring to what is seen in the 4th column, it was emphasized that researchers interested in linguistic change should consider different historical mid-states between the so-called Old/Middle/New eras of Persian as the order OP>MP>CNP>MD>CSP can be regarded to be a hypothetical chain of change in the Persian cliticization.
Hamed Mowlaei Kuhbanani; Abasali Ahangar
Volume 9, Issue 16 , November 2017, Pages 133-154
Abstract
Extended Abstract
1- Introduction
There are both social and geographical differences among dialects of every country. Finding linguistics boundaries, drawing linguistics maps and preparing linguistics Atlases are the most important activities in geographical linguistics. This study intends to introduce ...
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Extended Abstract
1- Introduction
There are both social and geographical differences among dialects of every country. Finding linguistics boundaries, drawing linguistics maps and preparing linguistics Atlases are the most important activities in geographical linguistics. This study intends to introduce the Kuhbanan linguistics Atlas as the first linguistic Atlas of Kerman Province. This Atlas includes the distribution of some Persian linguistics variables of Kuhbanani dialect spoken in Kuhbanan and Khoramdasht regions in Kerman Province. The main purpose is to introduce the linguistic atlases based on the differences of Kuhbanani dialect in these two regions. However, The geographical distribution of some Middle Persian linguistic variables observed in these two regions under investigation also is displayed, too.
2- Methodology
As to the methodology of this research, at first, the guide linguistic variables as well as the main one were determined by the free speech and interview of upper 55 years old, uneducated male and female Kuhbanani speakers of 30 villages. Afterwards, a questionnaire and lexical list have been provided and carried out. At last, based on the linguistic data collected, the differences and similarities observed in the distribution of the relevant linguistic variables as well as some remnants of Middle Persian variables in Kuhbanani dialect have been shown through isoglosses on linguistic atlases. GIS software was used to specify the exact area of each linguistic variable and to draw the linguistic Atlases and isoglosses. In this study, only one example from every phonological process and 13 maps from linguistics atlas are presented.
3- Discussion
Kuhbanan Atlas includes some data in Phonological (vowels, consonants & syllable structure) and lexical processes. In this study, only phonological processes are investigated and lexical processes ignored due to the capacity of the article. Phonological variables in the corpus can be divided into three categories of vowels, consonants & syllable structure variables based on their nature and manner of articulation.Vowel variables are investigated by dividing them into processes such as vowel lowering, vowel raising, vowel backing, vowel fronting, monophtoungization of diphtounge vowels, diphtoungization of monophtounge and Middle Persian vowel retention. Consonant variables too, are investigated by dividing them into processes such as consonant deletion, Insertion, nasalization and metathesis. Syllabic structure processes such as insertion and deletion of syllable are studied in the last part of the article. Because of the capacity of the article; Only 14 maps from linguistics atlas are selected. Selection of maps is organized in a way that every map presents a phonological process.
4- Conclusion
The investigation of linguistic variables indicates that linguistic items are extensively used in a similar way in these two regions; however, because of some differences in the linguistic behavior of Kuhbanani speakers, some dialect differences can certainly be identified in Kuhbanani dialect spoken in Kuhbanan and Khoramdasht regions, referred to as Kuhbanani and Khoramdashti accents, respectively. The speech of Khoramdashti speakers in Khoramdasht region is more similar to Yazdi dialect, because this region is closely near to the boundary of Kerman and Yazd provinces, while Kuhbanani speakers in Kuhbanan region use linguistic items more similar to Kermani dialect. We come to conclusion that middle Persian linguistic features such as vowel raising and vowel lowering and consonant deletion, especially nasal consonant can considerably be observed in these two regions. Furthermore, vowel backing , vowel fronting , monophtoungization of diphtounge vowels , diphtoungization of monophtounge vowels and change of consonant can be observed in Kuhbanani dialect , spoken in Kuhbanan and Khoramdasht regions as well .Furthermore, there are some sign of Middle Persian vowel and consonant retention in this region though they are few.
